Kuyisikhathi emlandweni wefilosofi, owawususelwa ku-cosmology, wagxila esakhiweni, emithethweni yendawo yonke kanye nakwizimiso ezicatshangelwayo ezinikeza incazelo ngezinguquko ezahlukahlukene emvelweni. Isiqalo sayo sisukela ekuveleni komsekeli wayo omkhulu, okwakunguThales waseMileto, owazalwa ngekhulu lesi-XNUMX BC. C.
Ngenxa yekhwalithi ama-pre-Socratics anayo, ekukhathaleleni imvelo kanye nomgomo wezinto, ukuthi lesi sigaba ngaphakathi kwefilosofi yamaGrikhi saziwa njenge-cosmological.
Igama lakhe naphezu komcabango we-etymological ohlanganisa izinto eziningana zesichazamazwi sesiLatin (njengesiqalo "pre" okusho ukuthi ngaphambili; igama likaSocrates elibhekisa kufilosofi kanye nesijobelelo "ico", esisetshenziselwa ukukhombisa "isihlobo to ”), inenye incazelo.
Lesi isichasiso futhi esisebenza njengomqondo ohlukile futhi sichaza igama elithi 'pre-Socratic', futhi libizwa kanjalo ngoba lakhula ngaphambi kukaSocrates futhi lifaka nalabo ababemlandela, abaqhubeka nokugcina isikhundla sabo sokungathonywa imicabango yombhali omkhulu oshiwo ngenhla.
Esinye sezici ezivelele kakhulu zale nhlangano ukuthi ngaleso sikhathi izazi zefilosofi zazingakwazi ukuphikisana nalokho ababekuqinisekisa ngoba yonke idatha nokucabanga kwakususelwa emibonweni ye-metaphysical.
Kodwa-ke, kwakuyizinkolelo zenani elikhulu, kangangoba, yize zazingenakufakazelwa, zisebenza ngokoqobo ngokwezikhathi nangesikhathi esingenakuphikiswa.
Izazi zefilosofi ezazivelele ngaphambi kweSocrate
UThales waseMilethu
Wayeyisazi sefilosofi esingumGreki, isazi sezibalo, i-geometrist, i-physicist kanye nomthetho-mthetho futhi owasungula isikole saseMileto, lapho abanye abalandeli bakhe babamba iqhaza khona.
Yize ingekho imibhalo enombhali wakhe, iminikelo engapheli ibangelwa kuye hhayi kuphela emkhakheni wefilosofi, izibalo, isayensi yezinkanyezi, i-physics, phakathi kokunye. Futhi lokho kuphakathi kwekhulu lesi-XNUMX kuya ku-C.
Ubuye abonakale njengesishayamthetho esisebenzayo se-Greek polis yasogwini lwase-Ionia, eMileto, lapho ngaphandle kokuzalwa, naye ashonela khona.
Iningi le-biography yalo mbhali lakhiwe iqoqo ledatha, imibono, izingcaphuno, phakathi kwezinye izinto ezisizile ukuyikhipha.
Kwaziwa abanye njengenye 'yezihlakaniphi eziyisikhombisa zaseGrisi', akwaziwa ngokuqinisekile ukuthi uMileto wafika yini, ukuzobhala okuthile, ngoba abukho ubufakazi obuqand 'ikhanda. Enye yezinto efinyelelwe ekufinyeleleni ukukholwa ukuthi nguyena owaletha iJiyomethri ezweni lamaGrikhi.
Phakathi kwemicabango yangaphambi kweSocrates okuthiwa eyombhali ngumqondo wokukholelwa ukuthi umhlaba untanta emanzini.
I-Anaxagoras
Lesi sazi sefilosofi sagqama ngomqondo waso wokuthi 'umbono kaNous' okusho ukuthi umqondo noma umcabango futhi okucaca ngokusobala umbono wakhe wefilosofi.
Enye yezinto ezimenza abe ngumuntu wokuqala wokucabanga ongaphandle e-Athene, njengoba azalwa futhi ehlala ikakhulukazi eClazómenas kwathi ngo-483 BC wathutha, ngenxa yochungechunge lwezehlakalo namashwa, phakathi kwawo ukuvukela kombuso wasePheresiya. .
Wayengomunye walabo ababekhuthaza noma begxile ekuphenyweni kwemvelo ngokombono wesipiliyoni, inkumbulo namasu. Ngokuya ngesayensi yezinkanyezi yalo mbhali kwakuzwakala kunengqondo kunokwabanye, futhi phakathi kwalokhu kugqama, umqondo wokuthi izilwane zazizalelwa emanzini kuqala bese zivela komunye nomunye; inkolelo yokuthi izinkanyezi zingamatshe amakhulu we-incandescent futhi uma singakuboni ukushisa kwazo kungenxa yebanga lazo.
Enye yezincazelo zakhe imayelana nokusitheka kwelanga nelanga; Eqala ngalokhu, wathi inyanga ayinakho ukukhanya kwayo, kodwa ukuthi ikuthola kusuka elangeni nokuthi inamathafa nezihosha. Wabuye waba nocwaningo ngokwakhiwa kobuchopho nenhlanzi.
U-Anaxagoras wayengomunye wababuza kuqala ababekhuluma ngoNkulunkulu hhayi ngombono womdali kepha kunalokho njengomakhi wezwe, okusho ukuthi, wakuthatha njengomgomo oqondisayo wendawo yonke.
Ku-biography yalo mbhali, okuvame ukwenziwa ukuthi wayethanda noma enaka ukucabanga kukaParmenides, owathi, “ukuthi akukho iqiniso elisha elingavela; khona-ke konke bekulokhu kukhona. Izinhlayiya ezincane zazo zonke izinto zikhona kuze kube phakade (homeomeries). Lezi zinhlayiya ezingenakubalwa zaqala zahlanganiswa ngobuningi obumbene, zaqala kanjani ukuhamba nezinhlayiya zehlukana futhi zihlangane ukuze kuphume izidalwa ezahlukahlukene? "
Futhi ngenxa yalokhu okungenhla, i-Anaxagoras ibhekisa kulokho esikubalulile ngenhla, iNous, ngale ndlela okuyisizathu sangaphandle esichaza ukuqonda noma ubuhlakani obanikeza leyo mass inert ukunyakaza ngendlela ye-whirlpool.
U-Anaximander waseMilethu
Ebhekwa njengomfundi nomlandeli kaMilethu, wayeyisazi sefilosofi nesazi sokuma komhlaba saseGrisi lasendulo, kanye nomngane ka-Anaxímedes. Uyaziwa ngenkolelo yakhe yokuthi umsuka wazo zonke izinto (arjé) awunamkhawulo (ápeiron).
Wayekholwa futhi ngokuthembekile ebukhoneni bomhlaba ongenakubalwa, yize kungaziwa kahle ukuthi ayalandelana noma ahlalisene yini.
Enye yezincwadi okuthiwa yaqanjwa ngalo mbhali "ibingokwemvelo"; umbhalo ongekho ikhophi eliwumzimba noma umsebenzi woqobo, kepha utholwe ngamazwana abhalwe abanye ngabalobi.
Ubengowokuqala ukuphakamisa udaba 'lokuphikisanayo' njengolusisekelo ekuguqukeni komhlaba. I-hypothesis abanye abalandeli abazoyithatha kamuva.
Enye yezinto enikezwe lo mbhali ukukalwa kwama-solstices nama-equinox esebenzisa i-gnomon, imephu yasemhlabeni, umsebenzi wokunquma ibanga nosayizi wezinkanyezi; kanye nesimangalo esimangazayo sokuthi uMhlaba uyindilinga futhi uhlala maphakathi noMkhathi.
U-Anaximenes waseMilethu
Omunye umfundi waseMilethu ngaphandle kuka-Anaximander. Nalokhu kokugcina wavuma ngenkolelo yokuthi imvelaphi noma imigomo yazo zonke izinto yayingenamkhawulo futhi kuthiwa wayeneminyaka engama-22 emncane.
Kodwa-ke lokhu kwenza umehluko okholweni olunjalo; kuye kwakungekho apeiron kepha into ethile efana 'nomoya', ayithatha njengesimiso sezinto zokuncipha nokufaka esikhundleni.
Okwe-Anaximenes, i-rarefaction idala umlilo, ngenkathi ukufingqa, umoya, amafu, amanzi, umhlaba namatshe; kusuka kulezi zinto, ezinye izinto ziyenziwa.
Lesi sazi sefilosofi sazalelwa eMileto ngo-590 BC. C., cishe, futhi wafa ngo-524 a. C. Futhi iminikelo kuthiwa yenziwa yi-cosmology, i-meteorology ne-physics.
Archelaus
Njengabanye, ayikho imibhalo ebonakalayo yalo mcabangi owayenguthisha kaSocrates egciniwe.
Akwaziwa ngokuqiniseka ukuthi ngabe wayevela e-Athene noma eMileto futhi wayeyisigceme sase-Anaxagoras. Enye yezinto ezimbalwa ezaziwayo ukuthi wayengowokuqala ukuletha ifilosofi yemvelo e-Athene.
Ubhekisisa imvelo, esinye sezitatimende zakhe ukuthi bekunezimbangela ezimbili ezikhiqize konke, amakhaza nokushisa; lawo manzi afingqiwe akhiqiza umhlaba futhi lapho encibilika akhiqiza umoya.
Ngokuqondene nezilwane, wachaza ukuthi zizalwa "ngokushisa komhlaba, okususa isilwane esifana nobisi, esisebenza njengokudla kwazo" nokuthi amadoda azalwa okokuqala ngale ndlela efanayo.
Ngendlela efanayo, wasungula ukuthi inkanyezi enkulu kunazo zonke iLanga, nokuthi izilwandle ziqukethwe ekujuleni komhlaba (okungena ngaphakathi emithanjeni yayo) nokuthi i-Universe ayinamkhawulo.
Ama-Archytas
U-Archytas waseTarentum wayeyisazi sefilosofi, isazi sezibalo, isazi sezinkanyezi, isikhulu sezombusazwe, kanye nojenene. Lokhu kwakungokwesikole sehlelo lamaPythagoras futhi kwakungumfundi kaPhilolaus. Kuthiwa futhi wayengumngani kaPlato, owahlangana naye ngemuva kokushona kukaSocrates, ohambweni lokuqala alwenza eningizimu ye-Italy naseSicily ngo-388/7 BC. C.
Ufake isandla ochungechungeni lwezinto ezidaliwe lapho ahlala khona, njengokuguqulwa kwezepolitiki, izikhumbuzo, amathempeli, phakathi kwezinye izakhiwo ezanika idolobha ubukhazikhazi. U-Archytas wayefundile futhi wanikela ngeminikelo ngolwazi lwabo oluhlangene endaweni ye-Arithmetic, Geometry, Astronomy kanye noMculo. Futhi eQuadrivium, Acoustics kanye nokuguqula izibalo ngendlela eqondisiwe nobuchwepheshe.
Izifundo zakhe zamasu, ngaphezu kwazo zonke izazi zezibalo, kuthiwa mhlawumbe zaziphathelene nokwakhiwa kwepulley, isando kanye nohlobo oluthile lwenyoni yomshini, ngoba yayinamaphiko futhi futhi yayenza indize ngenxa yemizwelo evela enhliziyweni umusi ocindezelweyo.
Okuthile okufuna ukwazi emibhalweni yomlando walo mbhali ukuthi izincomo eziningi zenziwa ezinye izazi zefilosofi zangaleso sikhathi, nazo ezazibheka okufanayo noma okulinganayo kwabanye ababhali ngakho-ke akukho ukunemba noma isiqiniseko sempumelelo ethile noma ubunikazi obuphelele.
ICratyl
Esinye sezazi zefilosofi zangaphambi kweSokrasi ngasekupheleni kwekhulu lesi-XNUMX BC. C. Kuthathwa njengommeleli wobumbano.
Uyaziwa nangokuthi ungomunye wabasekeli bomqondo kaHeraclitus, owathi "umuntu akakwazi ukugeza kabili emfuleni owodwa ngoba phakathi kwalaba ababili, umzimba namanzi omfula ashintshiwe. Ngokusho kwabaphenyi, lokhu kuthathe umcabango onjalo nakakhulu; omunye wabo kwakungu-Aristotle, okwathi, ngokusho kukaCratylus, wamemezela ukuthi "akunakwenziwa ngisho nakanye."
Lo mbono ongezwe ngumlobi, unikeze umbono wokuthi "uma umhlaba uqhubeka ushintsha, khona-ke umfula uguquka khona manjalo." Kumele kuqashelwe ukuthi, ukugcina ukwakheka noma ukwakheka okufanayo kwamagama, bathambekele ekushintsheni kaningi.
Esinye sezehlakalo eziveza lesi sazi sefilosofi ukuthi, ngenxa yalokho, kusukela ekucabangeni okunjalo, uthathe isinqumo sokuthi ukuxhumana bekungeke kwenzeke futhi wayeka ukukhuluma, wazikhawulela ekuxhumaneni nokunyakaza komunwe wakhe.
Iqiniso elibalulekile ukugqamisa ukuthi uCratylus wahlangana noSocrates ngo-407 BC. C. futhi eminyakeni eyisi-8 eyalandela wazinikela ekumfundiseni.
AmaXenophanes
Igama lakhe nguXenophanes de Colophon nezinsuku zokuzalwa kwakhe zisuka ku-580 BC. C. no-570 a. Njengezinye izazi zefilosofi zangaphambi kweSocrates, imisebenzi yakhe igcinwa ngokuhlanganiswa kwezingcezu.
Ngokuya ngemininingwane embalwa yomlando etholakele futhi ebuzwa imibuzo, ngoba akukho ukuqiniseka ngayo; Lesi sazi sefilosofi sazalelwa eColophon, idolobha elisogwini e-Asia Minor.
Ngaphezu kokuba yisazi sefilosofi esingumGreki, wayeyimbongi ye-elegiac, enentshisekelo ezinkingeni zenkolo futhi ephikisa lokho ayengakucabangi, njengokuphikisana noHomer, i-archetype yezimbongi kanye nesisekelo esiyisisekelo semfundo yangaleso sikhathi.
Ukusabela kwabo noma izimpikiswano eziphikisana nalo kuthiwa zinombala wokuziphatha okubi kanye nesimo se-anthropomorphic sabonkulunkulu benkolo ejwayelekile.
Heraclitus
Wazalelwa unyaka ka-540 a. Igama lakhe eligcwele kwakunguHeraclitus wase-Efesu futhi wayaziwa nangokuthi "Indoda emnyama yase-Efesu." Ukugcina isimo sabanye, iminikelo yabo yaziwa ngenxa yobufakazi bezazi zefilosofi zakamuva.
Njengoba kushiwo ngenhla, kwavela ukubonakaliswa kwenkulumo ethi "Awukwazi ukugeza kabili emfuleni owodwa"; esungulwe nguyena.
Umsebenzi wakhe uthathwa njenge-aphoristic, futhi kubososayensi bokuqala ababecabanga ukuthi umhlaba wavela esimisweni semvelo (njengamanzi eThales of Miletus, umoya we-Anaximenes kanye ne-apeiron ye-Anaximander). Umehluko ukuthi, kuHeraclitus, umgomo wawumayelana nomlilo futhi akufanele uthathwe njengoba unjalo, ngoba njengabanye ababhali, kwakuyisifaniso.
Incazelo ayinikeze umlilo njengezinto zokuqala zoqobo, ukuthi "umthetho-mlilo usho ukunyakaza okungaguquki noshintsho lapho umhlaba ukhona, ngokuhamba unomphela okuncike esakhiweni sezinto eziphikisayo; nokuphikisana kungumsuka wazo zonke izinto ”.
Elinye lamaqiniso anelukuluku ukuthi kukhona umgodi wenyanga obizwa ngeHeraclitus, ukumhlonipha. Futhi i-asteroid (5204) iHerakleitos ikhumbula isazi sefilosofi. Kuthiwa ushone cishe ngo-480 BC. C.
Ezinye izazi zefilosofi zangaphambi kweSokrasi ezingabalulekile kangako:
- Democritus
- UDiogenes wase-Apollonia
- Ama-Empedocles
- I-Epicarmo
- UFerécides waseSyros
- UHippocrates waseChios
- AmaJeniades
- AmaXenophanes
- ULeucippus waseMileto
- UMeliso waseSamo
- ILámpsaco Metrodoro
- UChios Metrodoro
- U-Elea Parmenides
- UZeno ka-Elea